Educational Alternate Reality Games
A Literature Review
An alternate reality game (ARG) is a new type of social gaming experience. Starting in 2001, ARGs emerged as marketing promotions for movies and consumer products, but recently ARGs have become recognized as effective educational activities.
This paper is a review of existing literature that relate to ARGs and their educational benefits. In particular, the reviewed literature pertains to three main research questions about educational ARGs: (a) the definition of an educational ARG, (b) the pedagogical benefits of an educational ARG, and (c) the features that could be included in an educational ARG instructional design model. To help answer these questions, this literature review covers information about the following three areas: background and definition of an ARG, pedagogical benefits of an educational ARG, and instructional design models for developing an educational ARG.
Defining an Alternate Reality Game
In order to investigate if an ARG can be used in education as an effective learning tool, it is important to begin with a definition of ARGs. There is a wide variety of ARG definitions, but a review of the literature about some completed ARGs and the various ARG features can provide a good understanding of the ARG genre.
Completed Alternate Reality Games
The Beast
As a promotion for the movie Artificial Intelligence: A.I. in 2001, The Beast was one of the first highly successful ARGs (Kim, Allen, & Lee, 2008). The Beast started off with movie advertising posters with hidden clues that sent people on a puzzle-solving expedition through the real and online worlds to figure out specific information related to the movie. Eventually, an estimated three million people either played or followed The Beast in less than six months (Kim, et al.). The core group of players named themselves The Cloudmakers, which eventually grew into a community of over 7,000 actively playing members, whose collective intelligence was so powerful that it required the designers of The Beast to have to completely alter the game structure (McGonigal, 2003).
I Love Bees
Three years after The Beast, the producers of the video game Halo 2 commissioned the I Love Bees ARG to serve as a pre-release promotional activity (Kim, Lee, Thomas, & Dombrowski, 2009). The ARG started with various game industry people receiving a package containing a jar of honey and a website address (www.ilovebees.com) (Kim, et al.). At the same time, onscreen advertisements for Halo 2 contained flashes of the same website address (Kim, et al.). The website held clues to a story about an alien who was marooned on earth and needed the ARG players' help to escape back to its own universe. The ARG contacted players via pay phones, cell phones, email, and other media to unlock story segments (Kim, et al.). When the game finally concluded, players were invited to events where they were able to play Halo 2 before the official release of the video game (International Game Developers Association [IDGA], 2006).
World Without Oil
In April 2007, the World Without Oil ARG simulated a real-world oil crisis and asked players to share their reactions in the form of blogs, videos, images, and any other online media (Ash, 2008). Over the course of 32 days, with each day simulating one week, the game attracted more than 1,900 players and 60,000 observers (World Without Oil, 2007). World Without Oil is significant in that it was the first large-scale ARG that had an educational purpose (Ash). After the completion of the game, two educators teamed up to create a series of lesson plans based on World Without Oil to use in classrooms (Ash). Despite its educational purpose, World Without Oil has been criticized in the ARG community as not being an authentic ARG because the game did not contain a collaborative storyline with a trail of puzzles to solve (Brackin, 2008).
Alternate Reality Game Features
The ARGs discussed above have features that are descriptive of the ARG genre. This section contains a review of the literature of these features in order to present the basic fundamentals of an ARG. These features include an ARG's game environment, game type, social network, collaborative storytelling, use of new media and technology, and pervasive and emergent gameplay.
Game environment
Although technically a form of massive multiplayer online game (MMOG), ARGs are an entirely new genre of gaming (IGDA, 2006). In MMOGs, large number of players participate in an online game; however, ARGs differ from MMOGs in that the typical MMOG takes place inside a single program or website, whereas an ARG takes place anywhere in the entire online and real worlds (IGDA). Brackin (2008) has described an ARG as a blending of online interactive fiction, online social networking communities, and online interactive games. However, because part of the ARG experience occurs in the real world, ARGs are not just an online only experience. McGonigal (2003) has described the ARG environment as less of a virtual reality world, such as Second Life, and more of an alternate realty world that takes place in both the real and online environments. McGonigal has used the term immersive gaming to describe the realism that players experience while participating in an ARG. In fact, the well-known ARG phrase, "this is not a game" (McGonigal, p. 2), refers to the ARG players' believing that they are not actually playing a game but are instead participating in a real-life experience (McGonigal). Brackin has identified immersive elements as a critical component of ARGs. For example, in the 2005 ARG, Art of the Heist, the compelling storyline, engaging puzzles, and live events were all immersive elements critical to the game (Brackin).
Game types
The International Game Developers Association (IGDA) (2006) has identified five different types of ARGs. Promotional ARGs are designed to promote a product or event and are the most high profile type of ARG. Grassroots ARGs are smaller productions that are often funded and designed by one person or small groups and are generally focused on a specific interest area. Productized ARGs are ARGs packaged as commercial products, such as the off-the-shelf game, Majestic. Single-Player ARGs are designed for individual play, but because single-player ARGs do not contain the social experience that defines an ARG, this may not be a true sub-genre. Finally, educational ARGs are designed to educate or train people in schools or organizations. In contrast to the five types defined by the IGDA, Brackin (2008) has divided the ARG genre into three main sub-genres: commercial ARGs (those with a stated corporate or commercial agenda), non-commercial ARGs (medium- to large-scale ARGs with no commercial agenda), and grassroots (same as the IGDA's sub-genre definition).
Social network
Brackin (2008) has called social networking "the backbone of ARG" (p. 7) because an ARG is mostly a social experience. He has described an ARG social network as having a self-organizing structure, which refers to the natural tendency of the players to organize themselves into casual, active, or enthusiastic player roles. Kim, Lee, Thomas, and Dombrowski (2009) have defined ARGs as "digital social experiences" (p. 1), which require people to form social networks to collaborate on problems and activities. Kim, Lee, et al. have explained that social networks not only allow players to collaborate but also motivate the players through peer encouragement and recognition.
As with any social networking experience, people's participation is vital to the success of an ARG (Kim, Allen, & Lee, 2008). A successful ARG requires that people build communities which lead to the formation of a powerful collective intelligence that can find solutions as the ARG evolves (McGonigal, 2003). In fact, many ARG designers create puzzles that no single individual can solve, such as one in which clues are distributed to different locations or in different languages, so that players must build communities in order to win the game. An interesting phenomenon about ARG social networks is that the participation in these networks is purely voluntary (Kim, Lee, et al.). No one pays the players to participate in ARGs, yet people spend long hours collaborating, solving puzzles, and furthering a storyline simply for their own personal enjoyment. Nonprofit and business organizations that rely on volunteer help can learn from ARGs in order to utilize the power of a social network of volunteers (Kim, Lee, et al.).
Collaborative storytelling
If the social network is the backbone of an ARG, the collaborative storytelling is the glue that holds an ARG together because it is the story that ties together all the elements of an ARG (Kim, Lee, Thomas, & Dombrowski, 2009). A main goal of an ARG is to create an immersive storyline. A compelling plot moves an ARG forward and can attract and retain a large number of players (Brackin, 2008; Kim, Allen, & Lee, 2008). Today, storytelling is becoming more interactive and participatory, and this new type of storytelling is likely to replace more passive entertainment activities, such as reading newspapers or watching television (Kim, Lee, et al.).
An ARG storyline has some unique characteristics. First of all, a good ARG storyline is easy to understand so that the story can be easily explained to new people and allow news of the ARG to spread virally (Kim, Allen, & Lee, 2008). An ARG story unfolds in real-time (Brackin, 2008) and is not bound by any one particular media because the story is communicated through all types of media, such as email, video, and websites (Kim, Lee, Thomas, & Dombrowski, 2009). Finally, the ARG story is always broken into pieces so that players can collaboratively discover or help create each part of the story before moving on to the next story segment (Kim, Lee, et al.).
Regarding the creation of the story, the players control how fast the story moves along and the direction the story takes by their collaborative actions in solving puzzles or completing assignments (Kim, Lee, Thomas, & Dombrowski, 2009). Successful ARGs enable good player control over the story; unsuccessful ARGs have stories that can lead nowhere or are purposely derailed into chaos (known as "gamejacking") (Brackin, 2008, p. 52). The ARG design team includes a puppetmaster, who is usually one person and is responsible for controlling the storyline (Brackin; Kim, et al.). The continuous give and take between the puppetmaster and players is an essential element of collaborative storytelling in an ARG (Brackin). Kim, et al. have likened the interaction between the puppetmaster and players to jazz because the story requires constant improvisation as it develops in usually unforeseen ways.
Use of new media and technology
The emergence of new media, such as user-created videos, text messaging, blogs, wikis, discussion forums, and social networking sites, has made possible new social entertainment activities such as ARGs (IGDA, 2006). An ARG is defined as being multimodal and can utilize practically any available media available, online and offline (IGDA; Kim, Lee, Thomas, & Dombrowski, 2009; Thomas, 2006). The popularity of ARGs is fueled by the willingness of players to utilize several different media and technologies simultaneously (IGDA). This use of different media and technologies allows ARG players to receive constant feedback from other players and the game itself (Kim, et al.). In addition, the variety of media provides additional ways to draw new players into the game and lets these new players have more communication options (Kim, et al.).
Pervasive and emergent gameplay
An ARG is pervasive in that the game is being played anytime and anywhere (IGDA, 2006; Thomas, 2006). Because an ARG is pervasive, the game is always in a state of flux with no set states (Thomas). Contributing to the pervasiveness of the game, occasionally in an ARG, the game will contact players at any time of the day or night and via any communication medium (Thomas).
Brackin (2008) has described emergent gameplay in ARGs as the evolution of a game that does not follow a specific path. Because the ARG players are a part of the actual game itself, emergent gameplay occurs because of the variability involved in the various players' decisions that take place throughout the course of the game. The emphasis of the game therefore becomes the journey through the game instead of the final outcome (Thomas, 2006).
Pedagogical Benefits of Alternate Reality Games
Up to now, most ARGs have not been specifically developed for educational purposes. However, ARGs have the potential to be effective learning activities. An educational ARG should combine the basic fundamental gameplay of traditional ARGs with relevant learning principles and theories, such as active learning, collaborative learning, scaffolding, situated learning, problem-based learning, multimodal learning, and motivation. This section examines the potential pedagogical benefits of these learning principles and theories as they pertain to an educational ARG.
Active Learning
An ARG promotes active learning because the gameplay requires players to actively participate in activities such as solving puzzles and collaborating in discussion forums. Also, ARG players are creators of media, such as blogs, wikis, and online videos, instead of just consumers of media, and this "player as author" (de Freitas & Griffiths, 2008, p. 16) characteristic encourages active learning (de Freitas & Griffiths). Another way that an ARG promotes active learning is by making the player aware that the player-created content has a direct effect on the evolution of the game. The ARG game designers use the player-created content to design new plotlines or activities (Whitton, 2008). The awareness that their involvement is critical to the evolution of the game encourages players to maintain their activity throughout the entire game.
Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning occurs in an ARG through the many group puzzle-solving activities involved in the gameplay. Much of the learning in an ARG occurs socially through the community of players, with established players supporting and mentoring new players (Thomas, 2006; Whitton, 2008). An ARG also promotes collaborative learning through players creating learning content for other players, forming a peer-to-peer type learning community (de Frietas & Griffiths, 2008). The communication between players in this peer-to-peer type community occurs mainly through the use of both in-game and public discussion forums (Brackin, 2008). Another way that an ARG can promote collaborative learning is by dividing up related game-specific knowledge among different players so that the players have to share information with each other in order to succeed (Dunleavy, Dede, & Mitchell, 2009).
Scaffolding / Zone of Proximal Development
Collaborative learning often requires the use of good scaffolding techniques. An ARG provides a good environment for scaffolding because the community of players provides helpful support for newer players (Moseley, 2008; Squire & Jan, 2007; Whitton, 2008). In a gaming community, players can recognize other players' expertise in specific areas (Squire & Jan). This recognition of expertise can enhance players' scaffolding opportunities during the game. The ARG itself can also provide scaffolding for players and help identify players' Zone of Proximal Development. An ARG can be effective at keeping a student in his or her Zone of Proximal Development by first storing information about students and then providing appropriate challenges (Luckin, 2001).
Situated Learning
An ARG provides a good situated learning environment because the game creates a real life context in which students can learn (Whitton, 2008). For example, in the World Without Oil ARG, learning occurred in the context of a world during an oil crisis (World Without Oil, 2007). An ARG allows players to learn through meaningful experiences in a time and place that is relevant to them (Thomas, 2006). The support that learners receive should also be relevant. Bruckman (2000) has stressed the importance of situated support, in which the context of learner support is just as important as the support content.
Problem-based Learning
The puzzles in an ARG promote problem-based learning for the players (Whitton, 2008). Moseley (2008) has noted that in an ARG, players often conduct lengthy research on unfamiliar topics in order to solve puzzles. Moseley has also pointed out that ARGs could allow students to select the starting level of problems, thus making problem-based learning more effective.
Multimodal Learning
Mayer (2001) has found that learning retention and transfer improves with the use of multimedia. An ARG promotes learning over multiple modes (Thomas, 2006). In particular, the visual and auditory media that the players and the game designer create are the primary modes through which students can learn in an ARG.
Motivation
An ARG is motivational because the gameplay provides a series of stimulating and satisfying activities. Reiber (1996) has noted the importance of including voluntary, intrinsically motivating, and engaging play in a learning environment. In an ARG, players have high levels of motivation because of their length and depth of engagement in the game (Moseley, 2008). Dunleavy, Dede, and Mitchell (2009) have found that previously disengaged students become very engaged when placed into a gaming environment. Moseley has described three areas that motivate ARG players: solving puzzles, collaborating in communities, and hearing about new storyline developments. Similarly, players can become engaged in ARGs through four types of actions: completing, competing, curiosity, and communicating (Whitton, 2008). Playing in an ARG also increases motivation for students because of the positive emotions, such as pride and satisfaction, they receive from participating in the game (Markovic, Petrovic, Kittl, & Edegger, 2007; McGonigal, 2008).
Educational Alternate Reality Game Design Model
Alternate reality game designs are not only complex but also continuously evolving, fueled by designers who are constrained only by real-world limitations and their own imaginations. An ARG design model can help people understand the overall design and gameplay of an ARG. Similarly, an educational ARG design model can help people understand the educational aspects and learning goals of an educational ARG. However, because ARGs are such as new entity, there is no known literature at the current time that pertains specifically to an educational ARG instructional design model. However, some literature exists about models for traditional ARGs and educational games. In this section, I will review this existing literature and also discuss the literature about possible features that can be included in an educational ARG instructional design model.
Existing Models
Experiential gaming model
Kiili (2004) has created a model for educational computer games based on game design, experiential learning theory, and flow theory. Game design refers to the series of linked challenges that keep players motivated and engaged (Kiili). Experiential learning occurs when a person learns from direct experience and reflection of that experience (Kiili). Flow theory describes the feeling of flow, which is a sensation of complete engagement in an activity and refers to an optimal experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). Kiili's experiential gaming model has combined game design with experiential learning in order to facilitate the flow experience (Kiili).
International Game Developers Association model
The IGDA (2006) has described ARGs as a blending of exposition, interaction, and challenges. Exposition refers to the narrative storytelling element that is conducted through blogs, wikis, websites, and other media (IGDA). An ARG typically is heavier in exposition than traditional video games, and creating the exposition is a main part of the gameplay (IGDA). Interaction is possibly the defining characteristic of an ARG (IGDA). Interaction refers to the players interacting via chat, email, telephone, or other communication media with not only other players but also the in-game story characters (IGDA). Challenges in an ARG consist of puzzles, games, and other real-world and online activities (IGDA). Although exposition, interaction, and challenges are three separate elements of this model, during actual gameplay, these elements often overlap (IGDA). A visual representation of this model might look a Venn diagram with three overlapping circles that represent each element.
Circular model of ARG development
Brackin (2008) has developed this model based on the 42 Entertainment (n.d.) inverted pyramid model of player participation in an ARG. In the inverted pyramid model, players are grouped into three levels: (a) casual player group, which has the most people and therefore makes up the base (top) of the inverted pyramid, (b) active player group, which makes up the middle of the inverted pyramid, and (c) enthusiastic player group, which has the least number of people and makes up the tip (bottom) of the inverted pyramid (42 Entertainment). The circular model of ARG development builds on this inverted pyramid model by taking into consideration the sub-activities or sub-games of an ARG (Brackin). A visual representation of the model resembles a pie chart, where each pie segment depicts a single trailhead (point of entry into an ARG) or storyline, and the size of each pie segment indicates the relative importance of a trailhead or storyline (Brackin). Because the shape of the model is a circle, the model can accommodate any number of different trailheads or storylines. Dena (2008) has described ARG content tiering as a system that provides for different trailheads by allowing the game producers or players to create separate content for the three different player levels (casual, active, and enthusiastic). Brackin has noted that in addition to presenting a visual representation of the anatomy of an ARG, the circular model of ARG development shows the various paths that go from casual to enthusiastic player in the form of arrows on each pie segment. Also, two or more overlapping circles can visually represent parallel or sequel games that have the same player base or common storylines (Brackin).
Additional Model Features
An effective educational ARG instructional design model should be able to show the structure and process of an ARG and incorporate various educational components. The three models described in the previous section provide a foundation for building an effective educational ARG model. To conclude this part of the literature review, I will examine some additional features that can be incorporated into an instructional design model for an educational ARG.
Learning goals and objectives
An educational ARG instructional design model should include learning goals and objectives. Carson, Joseph, and Silva (2009) have reported that smaller ARGs, often referred to as mini-ARGs, are designed to teach specific goals and objectives. However, even if an ARG has specific learning goals and objectives, the open-ended nature of the game means that players will sometime define other learning goals for themselves (Connolly, 2009). In addition, because of the emergent nature of the game, the ARG designer needs to occasionally adapt the design based on player inputs in order to guide players toward the learning goals and objectives (Carson, et al., 2009). An educational ARG instructional design model should be able to incorporate these various situations related to learning goals and objectives.
Assessment
An educational ARG instructional design model should also incorporate assessment activities. The literature mentions a few methods of assessing student performance in an educational ARG. Chin, Dukes, and Gamson (2009) have advocated collecting assessment data during a game activity. Connolly (2009) has noted that teachers can use tests during or after activities. Chin, et al and Connolly have suggested that instructors can also use pre- and post-game tests to assess learning. Overall, however, collecting assessment data in games is difficult because of the open-ended nature of game activities (Chin, et al.). Also, because group work is a common feature in ARGs, there is also the difficulty of assessing individuals in a group setting. Pitt (2000) has noted that individual assessment in a group setting is difficult because students may be motivated more by grades than by teamwork. Individual assessment in a group setting would be made easier if an ARG can automatically track and record collaborative performance data (Connolly). Another issue that complicates the assessment process is the fact that assessment does not always come from a teacher but instead sometimes comes from other players or the game itself (Connolly).
Scoring system
An ARG can utilize a scoring system in which players receive points for completing various tasks, individually or in a group. Displaying the players' points online for other players to view not only can provide feedback to players but also can promote competition (Carson, Joseph, & Silva, 2009). Markovic, Petrovic, Kittl, and Edegger (2007) have demonstrated the effectiveness of using a class leaderboard in an augmented reality game.
Game and activity timelines
An online timeline can show players' progress in an ARG as the players complete each activity. Carson, Joseph, and Silva (2009) have noted that such a timeline can provide organization of the game for players and groups.
An educational ARG instructional design model can conceivably incorporate other elements, such as player characteristics and state academic standards. In the future, new model features will arise as the ARG genre continues to evolve.
Conclusion
This paper has presented a review of the literature pertaining to two main research questions about educational ARGs: (a) what are the pedagogical benefits of an educational ARG, and (b) what features should be included in an educational ARG instructional design model? The existing literature contains information about educational ARG pedagogical benefits that relate to the following learning principles and theories: active learning, collaborative learning, scaffolding, situated learning, problem-based learning, multimodal learning, and motivation. In regards to an educational ARG instructional design model, a search for existing literature did not reveal any literature of models specific to an educational ARG. However, the existing literature contains two design models of general ARGs and one educational games model, both of which can apply indirectly to an educational ARG. Overall, the existing literature provides a solid foundation for creating an effective educational ARG instructional design model that incorporates various learning principles and theories.
Missing Literature
Because ARGs are a relatively new phenomenon, the literature about ARGs is fairly limited. There is even less literature about educational ARGs. Researchers and designers of educational ARGs can benefit from new studies about possible pedagogical benefits. Also, more literature is needed about ARG design modeling and other educational features that could be incorporated into an educational ARG instructional design model.
Future of Educational Alternate Reality Games
Alternate reality games are a new genre of games that are not only fun and engaging but also can be educational. Over the past few years, designers have started to create the first ARGs with specific educational purposes. Educational ARGs are now beginning to emerge in both K-12 education and organizational training programs. Eventually, more educators will start to become familiar with the educational potential of ARGs. Instructional designers will then be asked to come up with new features and uses that can expand the pedagogical benefits of educational ARGs. As ARGs continue to evolve in the future, there will be the need for more extensive research about their educational effectiveness.
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